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into fumarate is another oxidation reaction that takes place during carbohydrate breakdown in mitochondria. In this reaction, succinate loses two hydrogen atoms, which is equivalent to a loss of two protons and two electrons (Figure 2-23). Protons are soluble in aqueous solutions (as H3O+), but electrons are not and must be transferred directly from one atom or molecule to another. The electrons lost from succinate in its conversion to fumarate are Amazing vintage mandala rabbit full printing doormattransferred to flavin adenine dinucleotide , which is reduced to FADH2. Many biologically important oxidation and reduction reactions involve the removal or the addition of hydrogen atoms rather than the transfer of isolated electrons. If ΔG is negative for a chemical reaction or mechanical process, the forward reaction or process will tend to occur spontaneously. A second biologically important form of potential energy, to which we shall refer often, is the energy in a concentration gradient. When the concentration of a substance on one side of a permeable barrier, such as a membrane, is different from that on the
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