noted by Cousins (1985), from the perspective of scientific procedure the idea of a numerical trophic degree is fatally flawed, since as a variable, it will probably only be measured for a species by restating the query as to the trophic stage of its prey species, and so on all the way down to the primary producer level. This concept of a ‘food chain’ with a discrete number of steps was later modified to that of a ‘meals internet’ with each species being assigned a trophic degree which was not necessarily a complete quantity. In the earlier theory of food chains,
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